Spelling Rules for Teachers and Older Students (Germanic)

The spelling rules of English are unquestionably complex, but English spelling does have regular rules and patterns. Our schools ignore many of them, with some justification: there are a lot of rules, and there are a lot of exceptions. However, my view is that a great number of children would benefit from seeing the logic in spelling, not only at the h-a-v-e level but at the d-i-s-s-o-l-v-e and p-s-y-c-h-o-m-e-t-r-i-c levels. Some will struggle to memorize words on their own, and they will get the most from learning to spell this way. Others will have an excellent visual memory, but from my personal experience (I was one of those visual word-learners) a good overview of English orthography can lay plenty of spelling demons to rest for good.

Most words in the English language follow one of three sets of rules: Germanic, Latinate, or Greek. But the words young children understand, and first learn to read and write, mostly follow the Germanic rules, so those are the rules that should be taught up until third or fourth grade.


Section 1: Every letter makes a sound!
Generally, the most common sound for each letter is taught first, and its other sounds after the basics have been mastered. I will give here both a simple and a full account of each letter's sounds, and then a list of digraphs.

First Sounds to Learn
Aa: cat
Bb: ball
Cc: cat
Dd: dog
Ee: pen
Ff: fan
Gg: goat
Hh: hat
Ii: pin
Jj: jet
Kk: kite
Ll: lip
Mm: mat
Nn: nest
Oo: pot
Pp: pot
Qq: queen
Rr: ride
Ss: sit
Tt: sit
Uu: cup
Vv: van
Ww: wax
Xx: wax
Yy: year
Zz: zip


Full Rules for Confusers
Aa: Its short sound is the "a" in cat and its long sound is the "a" in late. Before an "m" or an "n", its short sound is the "a" in pan. At the end of a word, it makes the sound of the "a" in ha. In unaccented syllables, it makes the schwa sound (the "a" in again).
Ee: Its short sound is the "e" in pen and its long sound is the "e" in we. In an unaccented syllable, it makes the schwa sound (the "e" in kitten).
Ii: Its short sound is the "i" in pit and its long sound is the "i" in kite. In an unaccented syllable, it makes the schwa sound (the "i" in pencil).
Oo: Its short sound is the "o" in pot and its long sound is the "o" in bone. Sometimes it has a third sound, like the "o" in love and done, and a fourth one, like the "o" in to and prove. At the end of a word, it makes the sound of the "o" in also. In an unaccented syllable, it makes the schwa sound (the "o" in cotton).
Uu: Its short sound is the "u" in gun and its long sound is the "u" in flute. Sometimes it has a third sound, like the "u" in put and bush. In an unaccented syllable, it makes the schwa sound (the "u" in supply).
Cc: It makes the sound of the "c" in cat most of the time (its hard sound). But when it's in front of an "e", an "i", or a "y", it makes its soft sound: the "c" in cent.
Dd: It makes the sound of the "d" in dark. Before an "r", its sound changes slightly, and young ears may mistake the sound for that of a "j". (Drag, drip.)
Gg: It makes the sound of the "g" in grape most of the time (its hard sound). But when it's in front of an "e", an "i", or a "y", it makes its soft sound: the "g" in gem.
Hh: It usually sounds like "h" in hat, but sometimes it's silent, like in honor and honest.
Qq: It is always followed by a "u", and together they usually make the sound of the "qu" in queen.
Ss: It usually makes the sound of the "s" in sip. But when it's between two vowels, at the end of a word after a vowel, or next to a voiced consonant (b, d, g, j, m, n, v, z, and sometimes l and r), it makes the sound of the "s" in rose (like a "z"). Two "s"s always make the sip sound.
Tt: It makes the sound of the "t" in tap. Before an "r", its sound changes slightly, and young ears may mistake the sound for that of a "ch". (Truck, true.)
Yy: This letter can be a consonant or a vowel. It makes the sound of the "y" in year when it's a consonant. When it's a vowel, it sound just like the letter "i". At the end of word it makes a long "i" sound in an accented syllable and a long "e" sound in an accented syllable.


Digraphs
ai, ay: These digraphs make a long "a" sound. "Ai" is used at the beginning or middle of a word. "Ay" is used at the end of a word.
aw: This digraph makes the sound of the "aw" in lawn. In my part of the country, this is the same as the short "o" in pot, but it may be different where you are.
ea: This digraph makes a long "e" sound. In a very few cases, it makes the sound of "ea" in bread or break.
ee: This digraph makes a long "e" sound.
ew: This digraph make a long "u" sound, except in sew.
ei: This digraph is frustrating. It can make a long "a", a long "e", or a long "i" sound.
ie: This digraph makes a long "i" sound in an accented syllable at the end of a word, and a long "e" sound in an accented syllable at the end of a word. Otherwise, it usually sounds like a long "e".
oa: This digraph makes a long "o" sound.
oe: This digraph makes a long "o" sound.
oi, oy: These digraphs make the sound of "oi" in coin. "Oi" is used at the beginning or middle of a word. "Oy" is used at the end of a word.
ou, ow: These digraphs make the sound of "ou" in cound. "Ow" is used at the end of a word, or in the endings -own and -owl. Otherwise, "ou" is used.
ue: This digraph makes a long "u" sound.
ch: This digraph makes the sound of the "ch" in chip.
sh: This digraph makes the sound of the "sh" in ship.
th: This digraph makes the sound of the "th" in thin or in that.
ng: This digraph makes the sound of the "ng" in sing.
nk: This digraph makes the sound of the "nk" in sink.

Section 2: There are six kinds of syllables (how to know what the vowel sounds like)
The words in blue tell general pronunciation rules for each kind of syllable.
The letters in yellow are important to how their syllables' vowels are pronounced.
The letters in orange are NOT important to how their syllables' vowels are pronounced.

Closed Syllables (VC)
Closed syllables have one vowel and then at least one consonant. The vowel makes its short sound. (There can be any number of consonants before the vowel.)
     Examples: at, in, dog, pet, bend, slip, bat-tle, but-ter

Open Syllables (V)
Open syllables have one vowel with nothing after it. The vowel makes its long sound. (Again, there can be any number of consonants before the vowel.)
     Examples: I, hi, we, me, she, go, no, ta-ble, o-ver

Silent-"e" Syllables (VCe)
Silent-"e" syllables have one vowel, then one consonant, and then an "e". The "e" is silent, but it makes the first vowel say its long sound. (As usual, you can tack as many consonants as you want to the front of the syllable; just make sure not to stick any extras between the main vowel and the silent "e".)
     Examples: ate, make, kite, brave, be-have, re-take

Vowel-Team Syllables (VV)
Vowel-team syllables have at least two vowels, which work together to make just one sound. There can be consonants after them, but it doesn't matter how many. (And, of course, you can stick as many consonants as you want on the front.)
     Examples: eat, meat, see, dawn, braid, coin, out, spout, tie, bee-tle, rea-ding

"R"-Controlled Syllables (Vr or VVr)
"R"-controlled syllables have at least one vowel, then an "r", and then sometimes another consonant. The "r" makes the vowel or group of vowels say a new sound. (As usual, tack those starter consonants on!)
     Examples: or, car, her, hard, ear, fear, girl, tur-tle, mor-ning
          ***You may find "r"-controlled syllables with a silent 'e' at the end. After "a", "e", and "i" this changes the "r"-controlled vowel's sound.***  (bar to bare, her to here, fir to fire)

Syllables That End in "le"
Syllables that end in "le" generally have a consonant in the beginning, and, of course, end in "le". The "le" makes an "ul" sound, as in battle. These syllables always come at the end of words.
     Examples: cat-tle, ta-ble, bee-tle, a-ble, peo-ple


***But wait! This is all good for words with just one syllable, but what about words with more? Well, if there are two consonants between your vowels (butter), you break it between them (but-ter). If there's only one (maker), give the consonant to the second syllable (ma-ker). If you've got an "le" ending, count the "l" as the beginning of your vowel sound rather than a consonant. Table just has one consonant to be assigned (ta-ble), while kettle has two (ket-tle).***



Section 3: Spellings Rules Proper

Here is a chart, listing the sounds of English and the common ways of spelling each one.

Students should study lists of words that have multiple spelling possibilities, as well as irregular sight words.